ライフサイエンスコーパス: germ-free

1 e proteolytic signature were investigated in germ-free adult mice and in dams colonized with HC, pre-

2 n of the microbiota in antibiotic-treated or germ-free adult mice results in significant deficits in

3 Here we demonstrate that germ-free adult pregnant mice inoculated with a gut micr

4 s present even in sterile rat embryo islets, germ-free adult rat islets, and neogenic tubular complex

5 aised (CONV-R) counterparts, and mice reared germ free and then colonized with CONV-R gut microbiota

6 mmunity structure (P < .001), with humanized germ-free and antibiotic-treated groups overlapping in b

7 Depletion of intestinal Th17 cells in germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice ameliorated renal

8 Both germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice had significantly

9 In germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice, LRCs colonized in

10 Comparisons of germ-free and colonized mice revealed S-BMO-dependent an

11 diated diversification operate comparably in germ-free and conventional mice, indicating these unique

12 d attenuated responses to gluten compared to germ-free and conventional SPF mice.

13 of DCs were similar in mesenteric lymph from germ-free and conventionally housed mice.

14 t radiation-induced damage and death in both germ-free and conventionally housed recipients.

15 onic tip and crypt epithelial fractions from germ-free and conventionally raised mice and from mice d

16 Oral tolerance was induced by DNFB gavage in germ-free and mice deficient in several TLRs.

17 temic infection with Listeria monocytogenes, germ-free and oral-antibiotic-treated mice display incre

18 Germ-free and specific pathogen-free Il10(-/-) and germ-

19 e mammal by comparing metabolomics data from germ-free and specific-pathogen-free mice.

20 The generation of axenic (germ-free) and gnotobiotic model systems has been vital

21 ective role was observed in conventional and germ-free animal facilities, indicating that it does not

22 We present viscosity measurements in germ-free animals (devoid of gut microbes), animals colo

23 mice with a normal microbiome compared with germ-free animals and antibiotic-treated mice.

24 ystem, with for example the observation that germ-free animals harbor a poorly developed intestinal i

25 Germ-free animals were colonized with a signature HFD or

26 In germ-free animals, the absence of a microbiome protects

27 of conventionally raised mice compared with germ-free animals.

28 verlapping membership in individually housed germ-free animals.

29 mor formation in 3 mouse colon tumor models (germ-free ApcMinDelta850/+;Il10-/- or ApcMinDelta850/+ a

30 endent manner, as assessed by antibiotic and germ-free approaches.

31 consortium (Oligo-MM(12)) does not eliminate germ-free-associated clonotypes, yet does induce a conco

32 s to asthma was most pronounced in colonized germ-free BALB/c mice (genetically predisposed to asthma

33 rmite), and human-derived bacteria colonized germ-free bystander mice before mouse-derived organisms.

34 iota or a mouse cecal microbiota, along with germ-free "bystanders," revealed the success of particul

35 performed studies with conventional C57/BL6, germ-free C57/BL6, Nestin-creER(T2):tdTomato, Nestin-GFP

36 Conventional and germ free C57B6 mice were gavaged with LGG and intestina

37 We colonized germ-free C57BL/6 mice with bacteria isolated from the s

38 Germ-free C57BL/6J-Rag(1tm1Mom) (Rag1(-/-)) mice were co

39 intestinal microbiota by oral antibiotics or germ-free condition can prevent arthritis in mice.

40 n asthma-resistant outbred mice and requires germ-free conditions before colonization with microbiota

41 Further, mice raised in germ-free conditions had hematopoietic abnormalities sim

42 Re-derivation of pIgR(-/-) mice in germ-free conditions or treatment with the anti-inflamma

43 Ig infusion, and analysis of mice raised in germ-free conditions reveal a negative feedback mechanis

44 Re-derivation of HDAC3(DeltaIEC) mice into germ-free conditions revealed that dysregulated IEC gene

45 lopment of intestinal carcinomas, even under germ-free conditions, and therefore does not involve mic

46 We find that, when maintained under germ-free conditions, mice do not display an age-related

47 Mcl1 (controls) were raised under normal or germ-free conditions.

48 ibiotic treatment and entirely averted under germ-free conditions.

49 pithelial cells are significantly altered by germ-free conditions.

50 , and in wild-type mice that were kept under germ-free conditions.

51 icrobial flora and were not detectable under germ-free conditions.

52 factor and interleukin-17A, and persisted in germ-free conditions.

53 L2-IL1B were mice raised in germ-free conditions.

54 both groups of colonized mice in addition to germ-free control mice.

55 Embryos from antibiotic-treated and germ-free dams exhibited reduced brain expression of gen

56 e acidic region was significantly reduced in germ-free Drosophila, indicative of a role of the gut ba

57 Germ-free environment improves, and genetic ablation of

58 Experiments in a germ-free environment showed that the late larval phenot

59 Based on studies using rodents raised in a germ-free environment, the gut microbiota appears to inf

60 ated with certain antibiotics or raised in a germ-free environment.

61 e flies were colonized while others remained germ-free even at extremely high bacterial doses.

62 Here, by employing a germ-free experimental system, we demonstrate the abilit

63 Indeed, germ-free flies show delayed onset of intestinal barrier

64 st variation in colonization when individual germ-free flies were fed their own natural commensals (i

65 Growth on germ-free food reduced AMP gene expression and rescued s

66 free than in SPF mice, and winner B cells in germ-free germinal centres are enriched in 'public' clon

67 tion on neuroinflammation in cirrhosis using germ-free (GF) and conventional mice.

68 Recent comparisons of germ-free (GF) and normal specific-pathogen-free (SPF) m

69 In this article, we show that germ-free (GF) and Toll-like receptor-2 (Tlr2)-deficient

70 We observed that germ-free (GF) animals show delayed clearance of an apat

71 tributes to tumor distribution, we generated germ-free (GF) Apc(Min/+) and Apc(Min/+) ;Il10(-/-) mice

72 vestigate liver fibrosis in conventional and germ-free (GF) C57BL/6 mice.

73 report that I/R-induced intestinal injury in germ-free (GF) C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) mice is worse than

74 h broad-spectrum antibiotics (Abx) or use of germ-free (GF) donors and recipients resulted in prolong

75 a depletion by wide-spectrum antibiotics and germ-free (GF) female mice, we showed that the microbiot

76 ntrast to specific pathogen-free (SPF) mice, germ-free (GF) mice are resistant to Concanavalin A (Con

77 Germ-free (GF) mice display a significantly different in

78 Here, we report that germ-free (GF) mice display altered daily oscillation of

79 host microbiota to microglia homeostasis, as germ-free (GF) mice displayed global defects in microgli

80 crobiota in specific pathogen-free (SPF) and germ-free (GF) mice given more than 40 unique diets; we

81 ensals are not required for T1D progression, germ-free (GF) mice had a very low degree of sialitis, w

82 ination with CT, both antibiotic-treated and germ-free (GF) mice had reduced amounts of antigen-speci

83 Germ-free (GF) mice have reduced stool output.

84 Germ-free (GF) mice lost the gender bias (female-to-male

85 effect of colonization using human donors in germ-free (GF) mice on the gut-liver-brain axis.

86 Transfer of OP but not OR microbiota to germ-free (GF) mice replicated the characteristics of th

87 er maturation upon bacterial colonization of germ-free (GF) mice that have implications for studies o

88 report that colonization of sexually mature germ-free (GF) mice with conventional specific pathogen-

89 Here we demonstrate that co-housing of germ-free (GF) mice with specific-pathogen free (SPF) mi

90 In germ-free (GF) mice, sex steroid deficiency failed to in

91 rs have used to understand these effects are germ-free (GF) mouse models.

92 We tested the hypothesis that germ-free (GF) mutltidrug resistance 2 knockout (mdr2(-/

93 development of PLZF(+) innate lymphocytes in germ-free (GF) neonatal mice is restored by colonization

94 he intestinal microbiota using mice that are germ-free (GF) or humanized (ex-GF mice colonized with h

95 gene expression, we evaluated mice that were germ-free (GF) or humanized (HM; ex-GF colonized with hu

96 PH by partial portal vein ligation (PPVL) in germ-free (GF) or mice colonized with altered Schaedler'

97 ue repair of excisional skin wounds by using germ-free (GF) Swiss mice.

98 ion from the disease: MyD88-negative mice in germ-free (GF), but not in specific pathogen-free condit

99 typically, and functionally compared between germ-free (GF), specific pathogen-free, and GF mice reco

100 owth promotion phenotype is transferrable to germ-free hosts by LDP-selected microbiota, showing that

101 on tissue sections from immunocompromised or germ-free hosts, chronically infected hosts where the ti

102 odontal bone loss when transferred to normal germ-free hosts.

103 rred under specific pathogen-free as well as germ-free housing conditions.

104 BE tissues from L2-IL1B mice raised in germ-free housing had fewer progenitor cells and develop

105 Germ-free housing of Mcl1(DeltaIEC) mice reduced markers

106 microbiota did not induce HO-1 in colons of germ-free Il10(-/-) mice.

107 ree and specific pathogen-free Il10(-/-) and germ-free Il10(-/-);Rag2(-/-) mice were infected with C.

108 Using germ-free Il10(-/-);Rag2(-/-) mice, we observed that inn

109 The RSZ is undiscernible in germ-free larvae, but forms following monocolonization w

110 on BabA expression as shown by infection of germ free mice.

111 onfers in vivo resistance upon transfer into germ free mice.

112 n, steatosis, and hyperglycemia to wild type germ free mice.

113 We used germ-free mice (GF) to assess visceral sensitivity, spin

114 Restoring the microbiota of germ-free mice abrogated this protection.

115 TFH development is deficient in germ-free mice and can be restored by feeding TLR2 agoni

116 llus reuteri This species induced DP IELs in germ-free mice and conventionally-raised mice lacking th

117 Use of germ-free mice and faecal transplants indicated that suc

118 diet, to induce cholestatic liver disease in germ-free mice and germ-free mice conventionalized with

119 tes that were significantly downregulated in germ-free mice and have been reported to be related to n

120 duced mechanical hyperalgesia was reduced in germ-free mice and in mice pretreated with antibiotics.

121 followed by limiting dilution transplant to germ-free mice and microbiome analysis.

122 om human donors with ASD or TD controls into germ-free mice and reveal that colonization with ASD mic

123 rance induced by DNFB gavage was impaired in germ-free mice and TLR4-deficient mice.

124 Germ-free mice are protected from CCM formation, and a s

125 Enteritidis in neonatal chicks, phenocopying germ-free mice associated with adult chicken microbiota.

126 ly, it is phenocopied by pre-colonization of germ-free mice before Listeria infection with Prevotella

127 versal-dependent and could be transferred to germ-free mice by fecal microbiota transplantation.

128 ansferred from villin-TLR4 mice to wild-type germ-free mice caused increased H(2)O(2) production and

129 otic-treated mice, and antibiotic therapy of germ-free mice caused no additional abnormalities.

130 We found that germ-free mice colonized with bacteria from healthy, but

131 notypes and serum antibodies were reduced in germ-free mice compared with conventionally raised mice.

132 lestatic liver disease in germ-free mice and germ-free mice conventionalized with the microbiome from

133 Germ-free mice developed increased intraepithelial lymph

134 Tumors in antibiotic-treated or germ-free mice did not respond to CTLA blockade.

135 We reveal that germ-free mice display reduced proportions and different

136 es CRTAM expression and Th17 responses in ex-germ-free mice during Salmonella infection.

137 Additionally, germ-free mice exhibit diminished retention of O2-sensit

138 Germ-free mice failed to induce IL-36gamma in response t

139 Cohoused and germ-free mice fed feces from REG3A-TG mice and given DS

140 ifferent order, or simultaneously into young germ-free mice fed human infant formula.

141 Despite persistence of light-dark signals, germ-free mice fed low or high-fat diets exhibit markedl

142 emale twin pairs discordant for obesity into germ-free mice fed low-fat mouse chow, as well as diets

143 ia with a probiotic E. coli isolate protects germ-free mice from pathogen colonization, but the prote

144 Colonic LMMP of germ-free mice given TLR2 agonist had increased neuronal

145 Similar to meprin beta-deficient mice, germ-free mice have attached mucus as they did not shed

146 Microbial sequencing and reconstitution of germ-free mice have indicated both positive and negative

147 thy donors, transfer of IBD microbiotas into germ-free mice increased numbers of intestinal Th17 cell

148 in NKT- and in MAIT-deficient as well as in germ-free mice indicates that these cells recognize dive

149 Transplantation of the cold microbiota to germ-free mice is sufficient to increase insulin sensiti

150 A higher proportion of germ-free mice live to 600 days than their conventional

151 nterparts, and macrophages derived from aged germ-free mice maintain anti-microbial activity.

152 ally contains hundreds of bacterial species, germ-free mice mono-associated with a single Bacteroides

153 In germ-free mice mono-colonized with segmented filamentous

154 Here, we show in germ-free mice or in oral antibiotic-treated conventiona

155 Upon monocolonization of germ-free mice or rats with SFB indigenous to mice (M-SF

156 tration of specific microbial metabolites to germ-free mice promotes neuroinflammation and motor symp

157 By using germ-free mice raised and bred on an elemental diet devo

158 Transfer of Ahr(-/-) microbiota to wild-type germ-free mice recapitulated the increase Verrucomicrobi

159 Germ-free mice receiving fecal samples from subjects wit

160 ith a favorable gut microbiome as well as in germ-free mice receiving fecal transplants from respondi

161 Faecal microbiota transplant into germ-free mice replicated donor susceptibility, revealin

162 f faeces from specific-pathogen-free mice to germ-free mice restored germ-dependent clonotypes, direc

163 er, in vivo administration of NOD1 ligand to germ-free mice restored the numbers of hematopoietic ste

164 microbiota transplants from MS patients into germ-free mice resulted in more severe symptoms of exper

165 s and human microbiome transplantations into germ-free mice revealed that the KD-associated gut micro

166 exposure to polymer-rich luminal fluid from germ-free mice strongly compressed the mucus hydrogel, w

167 ota, activated a DUOX2 response in recipient germ-free mice that corresponded to abnormal colonizatio

168 Young germ-free mice that had been fed a Bangladeshi diet were

169 opulation in both specific pathogen-free and germ-free mice that has not been described previously.

170 mpared through competition experiments in ex-germ-free mice that were either treated with omeprazole,

171 or undernourished Malawian donors into young germ-free mice that were fed a Malawian diet revealed th

172 cleverly colonized ex-germ-free mice to demonstrate that immune genes regulate

173 RNA sequencing of luminal microbiota from ex-germ-free mice to show that inflamed Il10(-/-) mice main

174 model of auxotrophic Salmonella infection in germ-free mice to show that live bacterial virulence fac

175 In germ-free mice transplanted with patient-derived faeces,

176 fy their levels in the caecum of control and germ-free mice using two independent mass spectrometry m

177 ther, comparing cutaneous gene expression in germ-free mice vs. conventionally raised mice suggests t

178 s or mice (IBD, metabolic syndrome, etc.) to germ-free mice was found to be sufficient to transfer so

179 Skin of neonatal mice and adult germ-free mice was seeded with low numbers of antigen-pr

180 stinal microbiota, which when transferred to germ-free mice was sufficient to induce exacerbated inte

181 Germ-free mice were colonized as neonates with either a

182 ing gut microbial community structure, adult germ-free mice were colonized with a consortium of 15 se

183 and osteoclast and osteoblast biology, young germ-free mice were colonized with cultured bacterial st

184 Germ-free mice were given drinking water with TLR2 agoni

185 Young adult specific-pathogen-free and germ-free mice were used to delineate the commensal micr

186 Recolonization of germ-free mice with a complex microbiota restores defect

187 explore this association, we colonized young germ-free mice with a consortium of bacterial strains cu

188 Colonization of germ-free mice with a conventional microbiota promoted G

189 Colonization of germ-free mice with a defined microbial consortium (Olig

190 ids modulate intestinal health, we colonized germ-free mice with a sphingolipid-deficient Bacteroides

191 antibiotic-induced microbial depleted and in germ-free mice with and without fecal microbial transfer

192 anscription factor cFos, and colonization of germ-free mice with bacteria that produce short-chain fa

193 Treating germ-free mice with bacteriophages leads to immune cell

194 Colonization of germ-free mice with Clostridia, but not Desulfovibrio, d

195 Recolonizing germ-free mice with dysbiotic poststroke microbiota exac

196 egulate food allergy in humans, we colonized germ-free mice with feces from healthy or cow's milk all

197 We colonized germ-free mice with intestinal microbiotas from 30 healt

198 recolonization of the antibiotic-treated or germ-free mice with microbes.

199 in a mammalian gut environment, we colonized germ-free mice with microbial communities from human, ze

200 Co-housing germ-free mice with old, but not young, conventionally r

201 Conventionalization of germ-free mice with SF-derived microbiota confirmed thes

202 ally, we demonstrate that supplementation of germ-free mice with short-chain fatty acids, major produ

203 By colonizing adult germ-free mice with the cecal contents of neonatal and a

204 hted by anatomical and functional changes in germ-free mice, affecting the gut epithelium, immune sys

205 l studies employing dietary choline or TMAO, germ-free mice, and microbial transplantation collective

206 ells derived from specific pathogen-free and germ-free mice, and stratify cells into phenotypic subpo

207 mma6(+) and Vgamma4(+) cells was reversed in germ-free mice, and their activation state was decreased

208 tary tryptophan restriction are abrogated in germ-free mice, but are independent of canonical host se

209 airment of antiviral immunity was evident in germ-free mice, but neutralization of Ym1, a chitinase-l

210 e epithelium of TLR4 knockout (KO), 5KO, and germ-free mice, but not in TLR2KO mice.

211 Conversely, they were scarce in germ-free mice, but their presence was restored by gut r

212 Germ-free mice, clean specific-pathogen-free (SPF) mice

213 IgA responses can be recapitulated in young germ-free mice, colonized with faecal microbiota obtaine

214 EGFP, CCR2(-/-), CD11c-EYFP, CD11c-EYFP-DTR, germ-free mice, CX3CR1(gfp/gfp), CX3CR1(gpf/wt), and CX3

215 favorable effects of nitrate were absent in germ-free mice, demonstrating the central importance of

216 In germ-free mice, neutrophils still recirculate through ly

217 diabetic mice; when transferred to recipient germ-free mice, oral microbiota from IL-17-treated donor

218 ve effects were lost in both Ifnar1(-/-) and germ-free mice, revealing essential roles for type I int

219 Osteoimmunology investigations in germ-free mice, revealing that gut microbiota immunomodu

220 sals, coupled with microbial colonization of germ-free mice, showed the microbial porA gene facilitat

221 hese mucosal responses were also observed in germ-free mice, showing that they are independent of the

222 nase inhibitor blunted lactate production in germ-free mice, suggesting that lactate was predominantl

223 al bacterial composition and, by transfer to germ-free mice, that the oral microbiota of diabetic mic

224 However, in germ-free mice, the levels of LDC-induced, CT-specific I

225 +) intraepithelial lymphocytes purified from germ-free mice, their conventionally raised (CONV-R) cou

226 In antibiotics-treated or germ-free mice, tumor-infiltrating myeloid-derived cells

227 ensal colonization in antibiotic-treated and germ-free mice, using cultured commensals from the Actin

228 Using antibiotic-treated or germ-free mice, we show that parathyroid hormone (PTH) o

229 n this issue of the JCI, Li et al. show that germ-free mice, when chemically castrated, do not lose b

230 CCR9+ memory T cell frequency decreased in germ-free mice, whereas antibiotic treatment increased t

231 ow longitudinally the urine metabolome of ex-germ-free mice, which are colonized with two bacterial s

232 DP IELs are absent in germ-free mice, which suggests that their differentiatio

233 D-associated microbiome was transmissible to germ-free mice, with the gut microbial community structu

234 sed mice, but provide no growth advantage in germ-free mice.

235 bial origin since no formate was detected in germ-free mice.

236 rebellum, cortex and hippocampus relative to germ-free mice.

237 on a regular diet (MRD) and transferable to germ-free mice.

238 ed, while Sirt1 is upregulated, in aortas of germ-free mice.

239 in tumor development was tested in wild-type germ-free mice.

240 ntionalization experiments were performed in germ-free mice.

241 ither by means of antibiotic treatment or in germ-free mice.

242 abolites increases colonic and blood 5-HT in germ-free mice.

243 demonstrated by microbiota reconstitution of germ-free mice.

244 a samples that transmit immune phenotypes to germ-free mice.

245 that was reversed by conventionalization of germ-free mice.

246 the Christensenellaceae, and transplanted to germ-free mice.

247 ferred dramatic susceptibility to colitis in germ-free mice.

248 as absent in Rag1(-/-), IL-7Ralpha(-/-), and germ-free mice.

249 ses and anaphylaxis when reconstituted in WT germ-free mice.

250 eased neuronal numbers compared with control germ-free mice.

251 lls of microbiota-replete mice compared with germ-free mice.

252 studies of the effects of fecal transfer in germ-free mice.

253 eonatal and adult specific pathogen-free and germ-free mice.

254 steady state but was absent from the IECs of germ-free mice.

255 el of pulmonary fibrosis in conventional and germ-free mice.

256 crobiota dependent, as it is not observed in germ-free mice.

257 d drove higher adiposity when transferred to germ-free mice.

258 biotic or probiotic treatment, as well as in germ-free mice.

259 ensity and decreased firing rate observed in germ-free mice.

260 ed with Tlr2 (-/-) bone marrow cells, and in germ-free mice.

261 ated with delivery mode when inoculated into germ-free mice.

262 In contrast, in a germ-free model, the SOS-off mutant colonized with effic

263 or after the introduction of microbiota into germ-free models.

264 Using a germ-free mouse model, we found that faecal/gut microbio

265 Further, germ-free neonates had reduced skin Tregs indicating tha

266 in the bone marrow of antibiotic-treated and germ-free neonates.

267 Finally, germ-free Nfil3(-/-) mice do not develop colonic inflamm

268 ed in specific-pathogen-free conditions into germ-free Nlrp12-deficient mice showed that NLRP12 and t

269 The microbiota was ablated via germ-free or antibiotic approaches.

270 colonize conventionally raised mice, but not germ-free or antibiotic-treated animals.

271 m cancer patients who responded to ICIs into germ-free or antibiotic-treated mice ameliorated the ant

272 Murine norovirus (MNV) infection of germ-free or antibiotic-treated mice restored intestinal

273 Thus, antibody responses in germ-free or antibiotic-treated mice were impaired, but

274 Germ-free or antibiotic-treated mice were significantly

275 icient states as compared to control in both germ-free or E. coli gut microbiota states was used to q

276 microbiota from antibiotic-treated donors to germ-free or germ-depleted mice.

277 Germ-free or SPF-raised wild-type and Il10(-/-) mice wer

278 cs to suppress their native microbiome, were germ free, or received humanization without pretreatment

279 Unlike wild-type controls, germ-free Rab11a-deficient mouse intestines failed to to

280 gnificant decrease in serum triglycerides in germ-free rats fed a high sugar diet compared to convent

281 59: Dietary Carbohydrate and Blood Lipids in Germ-Free Rats," led by Dr.

282 the microbiota from Card9(-/-) to wild-type, germ-free recipients increases their susceptibility to c

283 (+) nTh17 cells are present in the thymus of germ-free RORgammat-gfp and IL-6(-/-) RORGamma: t-gfp mi

284 flora by fecal material transplantation into germ-free SAMP and the presence of the gut microbiome in

285 that critically ill humans never exist in a germ-free state.

286 Investigations included an intestinal germ-free study and a C15:0/C17:0 diet dose response stu

287 o asthma), only partially evident in outbred germ-free Swiss Webster mice, and marginal in convention

288 nce an altered environment compared with the germ-free system that includes reduced pH, depletion of

289 iated germinal centres is markedly higher in germ-free than in SPF mice, and winner B cells in germ-f

290 oPP to Il10(-/-) mice before transition from germ-free to SPF conditions reduced their development of

291 regulation of DUOX2 in intestinal tissues of germ-free vs conventional mice, mice given antibiotics o

292 ntibiotic treatment or colonizing littermate germ-free wild-type and NLRP6-deficient hosts with faeca

293 cognition protein 1) could be transferred to germ-free wild-type mice by colonization of mothers and

294 In colons of germ-free, wild-type mice, SPF microbiota induced produc

295 Germ-free, wild-type, and interleukin (Il)10(-/-) mice a

296 or immunity and restricts melanoma growth in germ-free WT mice.

297 ferences in the number of secretory cells in germ-free zebrafish and their conventional counterparts,

298 Gnotobiotic studies revealed that germ-free zebrafish are resistant to high fat diet induc

299 In this study, we used a germ-free zebrafish embryo model to show that osmotic st

300 d-type, and interleukin (Il)10(-/-) mice and germ-free zebrafish embryos were colonized with specific