ライフサイエンスコーパス: Neanderthal

1 comparison with H. sapiens and the Kebara 2 Neanderthal.

2 odern cognition and/or cultural behaviors in Neanderthals.

3 eaning at 5 to 6 mo, was present among these Neanderthals.

4 ibution in the Denisovan or the two European Neanderthals.

5 utations faster than either modern humans or Neanderthals.

6 time to the likely interbreeding event with Neanderthals.

7 tion to remove genetic material derived from Neanderthals.

8 contemporary archaic hominins, including the Neanderthals.

9 ondrial and Y chromosomal gene pools in late Neanderthals.

10 he Forbes' Quarry fossil predates the latter Neanderthals.

11 of indigenous human populations such as the Neanderthals.

12 rest of Eurasia and their replacement of the Neanderthals.

13 er proportion than the approximately 2% from Neanderthals [2].

14 These levels of Neanderthal admixture are consistent with an early diver

15 s, the indigenous Arabs had higher levels of Neanderthal admixture compared to Africans but had lower

16 ut-of-Africa bottleneck but before the major Neanderthal admixture events in Europe and other regions

17 likely 50,300-59,400 years ago (considering Neanderthal admixture).

18 To summarize the asymmetric pattern of Neanderthal allele frequencies, we compiled the joint fr

19 Regions that harbour a high frequency of Neanderthal alleles are enriched for genes affecting ker

20 eanderthal introgression, since introgressed Neanderthal alleles are enriched in ADHD risk variants.

21 hat confer risk for disease, suggesting that Neanderthal alleles continue to shape human biology.

22 affecting keratin filaments, suggesting that Neanderthal alleles may have helped modern humans to ada

23 stes exhibited significant downregulation of Neanderthal alleles relative to other tissues, consisten

24 c regions of reduced Neanderthal ancestry is Neanderthal alleles that caused decreased fertility in m

25 By site-directed mutagenesis, we inspected Neanderthal amino acid residues that differ from the DPB

26 size, indicating that this individual had a Neanderthal ancestor as recently as four to six generati

27 ssary to account for the different levels of Neanderthal ancestry among human populations.

28 ished data sets: European human genomes with Neanderthal ancestry and brown bear genomes with polar b

29 xpected finding is that regions with reduced Neanderthal ancestry are enriched in genes, implying sel

30 Three chromosomal segments of Neanderthal ancestry are over 50 centimorgans in size, i

31 However, the genomic segments of Neanderthal ancestry are substantially longer than those

32 tern Eurasia and carries a similar amount of Neanderthal ancestry as present-day Eurasians.

33 hat several studies have been able to detect Neanderthal ancestry at specific loci.

34 ixture with a ghost population that lacked a Neanderthal ancestry component (the 'dilution' hypothesi

35 e show that this can be explained by genuine Neanderthal ancestry due to migrations back to Africa, p

36 nisovan and 2.2 x 10(-3) to 2.9 x 10(-3) for Neanderthal ancestry even after controlling for differen

37 Our results refine our understanding of Neanderthal ancestry in African and non-African populati

38 population, and the hypothesis that reduced Neanderthal ancestry in modern Europeans resulted from m

39 e the locations of segments of Denisovan and Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans and applied t

40 e explanation for genomic regions of reduced Neanderthal ancestry is Neanderthal alleles that caused

41 A key observation is that the proportion of Neanderthal ancestry is ~12-20% higher in East Asian ind

42 re is an approximately fivefold reduction of Neanderthal ancestry on the X chromosome, which is known

43 Neanderthal ancestry remains across modern Eurasian geno

44 rican individuals carry a stronger signal of Neanderthal ancestry than previously thought.

45 able to document the extent of variation in Neanderthal ancestry within and among populations.

46 n any other tissue are especially reduced in Neanderthal ancestry, and there is an approximately five

47 Denisovan ancestry, just like Neanderthal ancestry, has been deleterious on a modern h

48 Here we analyse the genomes of a Neanderthal and a Denisovan from the Altai Mountains in

49 ls-as well as Denisova 11, the daughter of a Neanderthal and a Denisovan(4)-date to between 80,000 an

50 s to visualize the relative placement of the Neanderthal and Denisova among human populations.

51 identified through comparisons of the draft Neanderthal and Denisova genomes with those of living hu

52 ns(1,2), and high-coverage genomes from both Neanderthal and Denisovan fossils provide evidence for a

53 Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes show human-like sequen

54 e individuals from the 1000 Genomes Project, Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes, as well as reference

55 to discover MEIs in chimpanzees and ancient (Neanderthal and Denisovan) hominids.

56 viruses appear in the genomes of the extinct Neanderthal and Denisovan, while modern humans have at l

57 noid species, including two extinct species, Neanderthal and Denisovan.

58 ed widespread expression differences between Neanderthal and modern human alleles, indicating pervasi

59 n-dated Neanderthal remains, suggesting that Neanderthal and modern human presence overlapped in Euro

60 n human faces are distinct from those of the Neanderthal and SH fossils in part because their postnat

61 Comparing DR genes between two Neanderthals and a Denisovan revealed divergence in the

62 when compared to ancient and modern humans, Neanderthals and a wild chimpanzee.

63 volved in phenotypes known to differ between Neanderthals and AMHs, such as the structure of the rib

64 haic bones has enabled genetic comparison of Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans (AMHs), and

65 l studies suggest a possible overlap between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans of more than

66 Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans overlapped g

67 s revealed distinct use of the cave space by Neanderthals and carnivores.

68 and are enriched in polymorphisms shared by Neanderthals and chimpanzees.

69 d interbred with archaic hominins, including Neanderthals and Denisovans [1, 2].

70 e genetic relationships among modern humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans have suggested that 1-4% of

71 ter separating from the modern lineage, (ii) Neanderthals and Denisovans separated soon thereafter, a

72 demonstrated that two archaic human groups (Neanderthals and Denisovans) interbred with modern human

73 time and space with other hominins, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, and limited amounts of hybr

74 ssion patterns appeared after the split from Neanderthals and Denisovans, and that they might have pl

75 ancient introgression from groups related to Neanderthals and Denisovans, while African signals inste

76 sequences are known for two archaic hominins-Neanderthals and Denisovans-which interbred with anatomi

77 merged in modern humans after the split from Neanderthals and Denisovans.

78 vel, with some variants being inherited from Neanderthals and Denisovans.

79 ubsequent interactions of modern humans with Neanderthals and Denisovans.

80 on-Africans and now extinct hominids such as Neanderthals and Denisovans.

81 after their separation from the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans.

82 ing gene flow with now-extinct hominins like Neanderthals and Denisovans.

83 ilability of high-coverage genomes from both Neanderthals and Denisovans.

84 eistocene hominins, including modern humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans.

85 Devil's Tower (Gibraltar 2) and La Quina 18 Neanderthals and four SH hominins, all sub-adults, show

86 biological and cultural interactions between Neanderthals and H. sapiens.

87 consider the duration of the overlap between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens in Eurasia.

88 During this period, Neanderthals and humans interbred, as evidenced by Neand

89 evel containing Mousterian artifacts made by Neanderthals and is older than 39 cal kyr BP.

90 s during the MUPT in a region (Apulia) where Neanderthals and MH coexisted.

91 tant craniofacial differences existing among Neanderthals and MHs, an advantageous species-specific r

92 thousand years ago from a lineage shared by Neanderthals and modern human Y chromosomes, which diver

93 the identity of the last common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans ([N-MH]LCA).

94 The encounter and subsequent mixture of Neanderthals and modern humans - which, on genetic evide

95 olecular estimates of the divergence between Neanderthals and modern humans are underestimated; or (i

96 Neanderthals and modern humans both occupied the Levant

97 We examined the relationship between Neanderthals and modern humans in greater detail by appl

98 at a more complex model of admixture between Neanderthals and modern humans is necessary to account f

99 Neanderthals and Modern Humans moved eastward into Centr

100 llion years and the population split between Neanderthals and modern humans to 400,000-800,000 y ago.

101 have revealed multiple interactions between Neanderthals and modern humans, but there is currently l

102 ayed a role in the inter-species dynamics of Neanderthals and modern humans, the eventual replacement

103 nted sample set of three late (~70 to 50 ka) Neanderthals and one Upper Paleolithic modern human from

104 at are informative about its relationship to Neanderthals and present-day humans.

105 Both Neanderthals and recent humans demonstrate high intraspe

106 and reasons leading to the disappearance of Neanderthals and the likelihood of cultural and genetic

107 The demise of the Neanderthals and the nature of the possible relationship

108 s in the gibbon, gorilla, orangutan, bonobo, neanderthal, and human Liat1, respectively, suggesting t

109 regulation between archaic hominins, such as Neanderthals, and AMH sequences, and find 766 genes that

110 ry of admixture between early modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, and has allowed us to dise

111 thin the repertoire of hunting strategies of Neanderthals, and the resulting behavioural flexibility

112 s interbreeding with other hominins, such as Neanderthals, and the ways in which natural selection, i

113 vergent mtDNA lineage that splits from other Neanderthals approximately 270,000 years ago, providing

114 bust chronologies from 40 key Mousterian and Neanderthal archaeological sites, ranging from Russia to

115 Neanderthals are often considered as less technologicall

116 Neanderthals are thought to have disappeared in Europe a

117 Nuclear DNA indicated Neanderthals as a sister group of Denisovans after diver

118 We identified one bone that is Neanderthal, based on its mitochondrial DNA, and dated i

119 udies of the Y chromosomes of Denisovans and Neanderthals because the majority of specimens that have

120 ult of gene flow from an African source into Neanderthals before 100,000 years ago.

121 currently little genetic evidence regarding Neanderthal behaviour, diet, or disease.

122 at the Riparo Mezzena mandible is not from a Neanderthal but belonged to an anatomically modern human

123 10,000 years, and a contrast between single Neanderthal but multiple Denisovan source populations co

124 might not have been inherited from European Neanderthals, but rather from earlier Levantine populati

125 hat accompanied the replacement of "archaic" Neanderthal by anatomically modern human populations in

126 ical elements involved in the replacement of Neanderthals by AMHs.

127 determining the timing of the replacement of Neanderthals by anatomically modern humans (AMHs).

128 encing of ancient DNA from five specimens of Neanderthal calcified dental plaque (calculus) and the c

129 eep diversity, including entire introgressed Neanderthal centromeres and equally ancient lineages amo

130 ndustries, one of which has been linked with Neanderthals (Chatelperronian), end at a similar time.

131 w a distinct pattern of shape covariation in Neanderthals, consistent with more extended and adducted

132 laeolithic interface, both modern humans and Neanderthals contemporaneously inhabited the southern Le

133 It has been shown that Neanderthals contributed genetically to modern humans ou

134 ent with the recent finding of Meyer et al., Neanderthals contributed more DNA to modern East Asians

135 etween a single admixture event and multiple Neanderthal contributions to either population, and the

136 with skull shapes resembling those of known Neanderthal cranial remains, particularly in occipital a

137 Very little is known about Neanderthal cultures, particularly early ones.

138 of environmental pressures or attribute the Neanderthals' demise to competition with modern humans,

139 des late weaning as a factor contributing to Neanderthals' demise.

140 Our results show that (i) the Neanderthal-Denisovan lineage declined to a small size j

141 that several gene flow events occurred among Neanderthals, Denisovans and early modern humans, possib

142 scendants incorporated genetic material from Neanderthals, Denisovans and possibly other hominins.

143 e era of speciation between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals/Denisovans and around three times longer th

144 e the consequence of viral transmission from Neanderthals/Denisovans to non-African modern human popu

145 and Middle Pleistocene taxa from Europe have Neanderthal dental affinities, pointing to the existence

146 the non-Sub-Saharan African gene pool may be Neanderthal derived, while 6-8% of the Melanesian gene p

147 rated by modern humans than are introgressed Neanderthal-derived alleles (NDAs) due to their distinct

148 We identify multiple Neanderthal-derived alleles that confer risk for disease

149 roach, we demonstrate that a greater load of Neanderthal-derived genetic variants (higher "NeanderSco

150 cestral human neurobiology and suggests that Neanderthal-derived genetic variation is neurologically

151 he legacy of this gene flow persists through Neanderthal-derived variants that survive in modern huma

152 der than 40,000 B.P., suggesting the Vindija Neanderthals did not live more recently than others acro

153 At Spy cave, Belgium, Neanderthal diet was heavily meat based and included woo

154 The timing of Neanderthal disappearance and the extent to which they o

155 from other primates, and again as humans and Neanderthals diverged from other hominins.

156 Over this time, the proportion of Neanderthal DNA decreased from 3-6% to around 2%, consis

157 However, the endogenous Neanderthal DNA is present among an overwhelming excess

158 ica have a small but significant fraction of Neanderthal DNA.

159 characterization of regional differences in Neanderthal ecology.

160 Among a plethora of hypotheses on Neanderthal extinction, rapid climate changes during the

161 competition with H. sapiens may have caused Neanderthals' extinction.

162 s discovery demonstrates the capacity of the Neanderthals for abstract thought and expression through

163 y accepted that some of the latest dates for Neanderthal fossils and Mousterian industries are found

164 n method for the Mousterian at Jarama VI and Neanderthal fossils at Zafarraya.

165 All Neanderthal fossils-as well as Denisova 11, the daughter

166 requency spectrum of European and East Asian Neanderthal fragments and compared it with both analytic

167 e size of Denisovan fragments is larger than Neanderthal fragments, implying a more recent average da

168 sia (Mezmaiskaya 1), than to a ~49,000-y-old Neanderthal from El Sidron (El Sidron 1253) in northern

169 ny, as well as to a ~60,000- to 70,000-y-old Neanderthal from Russia (Mezmaiskaya 1), than to a ~49,0

170 We also sequenced the genome of a Neanderthal from the Caucasus to low coverage.

171 from ancestral Europeans, and gene flow into Neanderthals from an early dispersing group of humans ou

172 ontrast, no meat was detected in the diet of Neanderthals from El Sidron cave, Spain, and dietary com

173 on 1253) in northern Spain and other younger Neanderthals from Europe and western Asia.

174 netically more similar to the ~120,000-y-old Neanderthals from Scladina Cave in Belgium (Scladina I-4

175 r with the sequences of chromosome 21 of two Neanderthals from Spain and Croatia.

176 later interbreeding events, the ancestors of Neanderthals from the Altai Mountains and early modern h

177 contributed genetically to the ancestors of Neanderthals from the Altai Mountains roughly 100,000 ye

178 n example of an abstract pattern engraved by Neanderthals, from Gorham's Cave in Gibraltar.

179 The antiquity of Neanderthal gene flow into modern humans means that geno

180 in present-day individuals, indicating that Neanderthal gene flow into the ancestors of this individ

181 Our results suggest that Neanderthal genetic associations with contemporary non-S

182 In addition, the high-quality Neanderthal genome allows us to establish a definitive l

183 complementary methods to the published draft Neanderthal genome and an expanded set of high-coverage

184 Our results indicate that 3.6% of the Neanderthal genome is shared with roughly 65.4% of the a

185 alyses that compared a draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome with genomes of several modern humans

186 tif is present in the DPbeta sequence of the Neanderthal genome, and this ancient sequence is related

187 t the VNTR is expanded in both Denisovan and Neanderthal genomes but is fixed at one copy or fewer in

188 populations and demonstrate that remnants of Neanderthal genomes survive in every modern human popula

189 only the derived, C allele in Denisovan and Neanderthal genomes.

190 mans to overcome disease burden earlier than Neanderthals, giving them an advantage in their subseque

191 estionable use of flowers in the Shanidar IV Neanderthal grave.

192 in the behaviour and settlement patterns of Neanderthal groups during MIS 4.

193 o could only enter Europe when the demise of Neanderthals had already started.

194 Neanderthals had large and projecting (prognathic) faces

195 However, Neanderthal haplotypes are also distinctive enough that

196 We systematically infer Neanderthal haplotypes in the genomes of 1,004 present-d

197 y to have been divergently regulated (DR) by Neanderthal haplotypes that do not remain in AMHs.

198 thropogenic pollution evidence is related to Neanderthal hearths from Gorham's Cave (Gibraltar), bein

199 y of high-coverage genomes for Denisovan and Neanderthal hominids, we conducted a screen for endogeni

200 ximal first metacarpal articular surfaces of Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) in comparison to ea

201 means that genomic regions that derive from Neanderthals in any one human today are usually less tha

202 Anatomically modern humans replaced Neanderthals in Europe around 40,000 years ago.

203 ve arisen in modern humans by admixture with Neanderthals in Europe.

204 ups are still little known, it is clear that Neanderthals in southern Europe disappeared about 42 tho

205 Evidence for the late survival of Neanderthals in southern Iberia is limited to one possib

206 not play a key role in the disappearance of Neanderthals in this area, Neanderthal-MH turnover must

207 Micoquian-like artifacts implies two or more Neanderthal incursions into this region.

208 Our study demonstrates that Neanderthal-inherited sequences are not silent remnants

209 Genomic studies have shown that Neanderthals interbred with modern humans, and that non-

210 support previous estimates of gene flow from Neanderthals into modern Eurasians.

211 tent with a single episode of admixture from Neanderthals into the ancestors of all non-Africans when

212 one recent evolutionary selection, including Neanderthal introgression and human pathogen adaptation,

213 In summary, our study reveals that Neanderthal introgression reintroduced thousands of lost

214 cannot be explained by African admixture nor Neanderthal introgression, since introgressed Neandertha

215 The case of FOXP2 and Neanderthals is a prime example, which I will comment on

216 split-based points, alongside the remains of Neanderthals is a result of postdepositional mixing, rat

217 ss polymorphism shared between Eurasians and Neanderthals is compatible with scenarios in which no hy

218 o more than 170 thousand years ago and has a Neanderthal-like morphological pattern.

219 man lineage and 400,000-y-old fossils to the Neanderthal lineage.

220 omes of several modern humans concluded that Neanderthals made a small (1-4%) contribution to the gen

221 ern humans (AMHs) and evidence of a probable Neanderthal-made industry in the basal layers.

222 disappearance of Neanderthals in this area, Neanderthal-MH turnover must be approached from a perspe

223 contributed to substantial variation within Neanderthal microbiota.

224 However, the closer affinity of the Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to modern humans t

225 The causes of Neanderthal-modern human (MH) turnover are ambiguous.

226 In particular, at least some Neanderthal-modern human admixture must postdate the sep

227 enome of the Oase individual is derived from Neanderthals, more than any other modern human sequenced

228 We demonstrate that a complete Neanderthal mtDNA replacement is feasible over this time

229 indicates that the Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals near the Altai Mountains (South Siberia) bu

230 It has also been proposed that the Neanderthal occupation could have consisted of short-ter

231 Our results suggest that Neanderthals occupied the Central Mediterranean coast of

232 Our data indicate that the disappearance of Neanderthals occurred at different times in different re

233 iniscent of those later produced by the last Neanderthals of western Europe(4-6).

234 rom a Denisovan, an Asian hominin related to Neanderthals, on the basis of an amino acid substitution

235 In Neanderthals, ontogenetic patterns in early life are sti

236 ic cooling failed to have lasting impacts on Neanderthals or early modern humans in Europe.

237 fossils controversially identified as either Neanderthals or Homo sapiens.

238 European-descent, we show that the amount of Neanderthal-originating polymorphism carried in living h

239 e reconstruct the internal nasal cavity of a Neanderthal plus two representatives of climatically div

240 ed soon thereafter, and (iii) the subsequent Neanderthal population was large and deeply subdivided.

241 riod of global cooling may have affected the Neanderthal population.

242 early Homo sapiens population, followed by a Neanderthal population.

243 The Iberian Peninsula was the last refuge of Neanderthal populations as modern humans advanced across

244 replacement and partial absorption of local Neanderthal populations by Homo sapiens populations of A

245 At other Altai sites, evidence of earlier Neanderthal populations lacking associated Micoquian-lik

246 to Europe coming into contact with declining Neanderthal populations(7,8).

247 uman dispersal and replacement of indigenous Neanderthal populations.

248 rthals and humans interbred, as evidenced by Neanderthal portions of the genome carried by non-Africa

249 ossil record, and admixture between AMHs and Neanderthals predating the main Eurasian expansion, our

250 At this site, the Neanderthal presence has been questioned in relation to

251 als resulted in an increased genetic load in Neanderthals relative to modern humans.

252 h has debated the technological abilities of Neanderthals relative to those of early modern humans, w

253 re, we found no evidence for the presence of Neanderthal remains among 11 of the 13 cranial and post-

254 al crania from Gibraltar are among the first Neanderthal remains ever found.

255 Previous dating of the Vi-207 and Vi-208 Neanderthal remains from Vindija Cave (Croatia) led to t

256 d 90,000 Middle Paleolithic artifacts and 74 Neanderthal remains have been recovered from deposits da

257 makers, supported by DNA results linking the Neanderthal remains with populations in northern Croatia

258 ixture resulted in the chance association of Neanderthal remains, CP assemblages, and body ornaments.

259 s with the latest directly radiocarbon-dated Neanderthal remains, suggesting that Neanderthal and mod

260 st hypotheses in the heated debate about the Neanderthals' replacement by modern humans highlight the

261 lectively neutral species drift predicts the Neanderthals' replacement.

262 nus Homo, and that the cranial morphology of Neanderthals represents a derived form.

263 somes 16p11.2 and 8p21.3 from Denisovans and Neanderthals, respectively.

264 ible if the low effective population size of Neanderthals resulted in an increased genetic load in Ne

265 The activities of the Neanderthals seem to be distinctly structured, suggestin

266 om the evolutionary proxy measure called the Neanderthal selective sweep (NSS) score.

267 e N shares a recent common ancestor with the Neanderthal sequence (~80 thousand years ago) and is fou

268 diverse populations to identify and analyze Neanderthal sequences segregating in modern humans.

269 Many Neanderthal sequences survive in modern humans due to an

270 eoanthropology independent lineages (such as Neanderthals) should not be confused with ancestral mode

271 Y chromosomes from two Denisovans and three Neanderthals shows that the Y chromosomes of Denisovans

272 a sequence that closely matches that of the Neanderthal STAT2.

273 m the Abri du Maras led to the hypothesis of Neanderthal string production in the past, but conclusiv

274 ue to gene flow from Neanderthals, the three Neanderthal substitutions are found in ~0.4% of present-

275 Both modern humans (MHs) and Neanderthals successfully settled across western Eurasia

276 ja Cave (Croatia) led to the suggestion that Neanderthals survived there as recently as 28,000-29,000

277 es were more sensitive to painful stimuli in Neanderthals than in modern humans.

278 more complex interaction between humans and Neanderthals than was previously appreciated.

279 ossil record approximately 40,000 years ago, Neanderthals, the ancient hominin lineage most closely r

280 d in archaeological contexts associated with Neanderthals, the cognitively undemanding connection bet

281 In Neanderthals, the Nav1.7 protein carried three amino aci

282 We show that, due to gene flow from Neanderthals, the three Neanderthal substitutions are fo

283 cial refugium during critical periods of the Neanderthal timeline and might therefore yield archaeolo

284 ecords through the period of transition from Neanderthal to the earliest anatomically modern human po

285 genomic systems ranging from butterflies to Neanderthals to detect introgression, however, when empl

286 Birch tar production by Neanderthals-used for hafting tools-has been interpreted

287 ct the function of the ion channel, the full Neanderthal variant carrying all three substitutions, as

288 %, consistent with natural selection against Neanderthal variants in modern humans.

289 dern humans, the eventual replacement of the Neanderthals was determined by the repeated migration of

290 Neanderthals were a group of archaic hominins that occup

291 ark tar, art, and shell beads, the idea that Neanderthals were cognitively inferior to modern humans

292 e Iberian Peninsula during MIS 4, that these Neanderthals were not undergoing climatic stress and the

293 Neanderthals were once widespread across Europe and west

294 Europe, reaching the westernmost edge where Neanderthals were thought to persist.

295 es a rapid air conditioning, followed by the Neanderthals, whereas the European model attains a prope

296 human lineage after the split of humans from Neanderthals which led to the fixation of multiple copie

297 ransitions in a Middle Palaeolithic juvenile Neanderthal, which shows a pattern of exclusive breastfe

298 benefited from some selective advantage over Neanderthals, which led to the their extinction.

299 self-medication was detected in an El Sidron Neanderthal with a dental abscess and a chronic gastroin

300 present a high-quality genome sequence of a Neanderthal woman from Siberia.